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AGRICULTURAL TRACT, NO. 1. 



CULTURE OF THE GRASSES. 



An Extract from thb Fourth Annoal Report of Charles L.' Flint, Sboeetart of thb 
State Board or Agricdlture. '' 



FCBLISHED, UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE MASSACHUSETTS StATB BoAKD 

OP Agriculture, for general circulation. 







BOSTON: 

WILLIAM WHITE, PRINTER TO THE STATE. 
1860. 



CULTURE OF THE GRASSES. 



It is difficult to overestimate the importance to tlie farmer 
of a good selection and proper mixture of grass seeds for 
the various purposes of cultivation, for mowing, for soiling, 
for permanent pasturage, or for an alternate crop. 

Doubtless the varieties of seed usually sown in this State, 
consisting almost exclusivelv of Timothy and redtop, with a 
mixture of red clover, are among the best for our purposes, 
and their exclusive use is, in a measure, sanctioned by the 
experience and practice of our best farmers; yet, it would 
seem very strange indeed, if this vast family of plants, con- 
sisting of thousands of species and varieties, and occupying, 
as already intimated, nearly a sixth part of the whole vege- 
table kingdom, could furnish no more than two or three 
truly valuable species. 

When we consider also, that some species are best adapt- 
ed to one locality, and others to another, some reaching 
their fullest and most perfect development on clay soils and 
some on lighter loams and sands, we cannot but wonder 
that the practice of sowing only Timothy and redtop on 
nearly all soils, clays, loams and sands, indiscriminately, 
both on high and low land, should have become so prevalent. 
It is equally remarkable that while but very few of our 
grasses, and these, for the most part, species peculiar to 
sterile soils, flourish alone, but nearly all do best with a 
mixture of several species, it should so constantly have 
been thought judicious to attempt to grow only two promi- 
nent species together with merely an occasional addition of 
an annual or a biennial clover, which soon dies out. When 



2 CULTURE OF THE GRASSES. 

this course is pursued, unless the soil is rich and in ijood 
heart, the grass is likely to grow thin and far between, pro- 
ducing but half or two-thirds of a crop, whereas, the addi- 
tion in the mixture of a larger number of species, would 
have secured a heavier burden of a better quality. These 
considerations, it seems to me, indicate the true direction 
in which the farmer who wishes to verify the saying of Dean 
Swift and "make two spires of grass grow where one grew 
before " without impoverishing the soil, a condition which 
ought always to be added, should turn his attention. 

I hold this proposition to be indisputable, that any soil 
will yield a larger and more nutritious crop, if sown with 
several kinds of nutritious grasses, than when sown with 
only one or two species. Indeed, it is a fact well estab- 
lished by careful experiment, that a mixture of only two or 
three species of grasses and clover, will produce a less 
amount of hay than can be obtained by sowing a larger 
number of species together. There may be some excep- 
tions to this rule, as in cases where the yield of Timothy 
and redtop, owing to the peculiar fitness of the soil for 
these grasses, is as great as can stand on the ground 
covered by them. 

But it is nevertheless true, that if we sow but one kind 
of grass, however abundantly the seed may be scattered, or 
on whatever soil it may be, or under however favorable 
influences, yet only a part of the plants will flourish j vacant 
spaces will occur throughout the piece which will be filled 
up after a time by grasses of an inferior quality, weeds or 
mosses. This is the case in some degree also, where only 
two, or a small number of species are sown; while if a 
mixture made up of a larger number of kinds of seed is 
used, the plants will cover the entire surface and produce 
a far better quality of herbage. 

In sowing such a mixture of several different species, we 
do but follow nature, who, after all, will generally be found 
to be the best teacher, for wherever we cast our eyes over 
an old, rich, permanent pasture, we ordinarily see from 
fifteen to twenty species of grass or forage plants growing 



CULTURE OP THE GRASSES. 



in social profusion. If the soil be very poor, as a cold, 
hard clay, or a barren sand, perhaps two or three varieties 
will suffice, but on good soils a larger number will be 
found to be far more profitable. Especially is this the case 
where the land is to be left in grass for some years, and 
eventually pastured, as is frequently done in New Eng- 
land, for it is then desirable to have grasses that reach 
their maturity at difFerent times, as a constant succession 
of good feed throughout the season may thus more surely 
be obtained. It is well known that there is no month of 
spring or summer in which some one of the grasses does 
not attain to its perfection, if we except the month of March. 
For good soils, eight or ten species of the grasses or six 
or eight of the grasses proper and one or more of other 
herbage plants would probably be found to be profitable. 

I am aware that the prevailing practice is decidedly 
against the use of any thing but Timothy, redtop and clover 
and that very large crops of these grasses are often raised 
but it is nevertheless true that we obtain on an average 
less than a ton to the acre, while with the same culture and 
a larger number of species we ought to get double that 
quantity. 

Before proceeding to consider the proportions in which 
the different species should be mixed, it may be well to 
refer to the mode generally adopted for estimating the 
quantities of seeds their and relative weight. Old or 
poor seed weighs less than that which is fresh and new. 
Now if a farmer buys by weight, even if he does get an old 
or inferior quality of seed, he gets a much larger number 
of seeds, and this larger quantity of seed which he receives 
for his money, may make up for the inferior quality, and he 
will have a larger number of seeds capable of germination 
than he would have if he bought by measure. It is to be 
regretted that it has become so nearly universal to pur- 
chase by measure, though as this course is for the seller's 
advantage, it may be difficult to change the custom. 

I have expressed the opinion that we limit our mixtures 
to too few species, thus failing to arrive at the most profit- 



4 CULTUKB OP THE GRASSES. 

able results, and have said that, in a piece of land seeded 
with one or two favorite grasses only, small vacant spaces 
will be found, which in the aggregate will diminish very con- 
siderably the yield of an acre, even though they may be so 
small as not to be perceived. It might be thought that this 
could be avoided by putting into the ground a very large 
number of seeds. But a knowledge of the quantities of 
seed ordinarily used in this State for sowing, and an inquiry 
as to the number of plants necessary to cover the ground 
with a thick coating of grass, will show that this is not the 
case. I have in my possession letters from some of the 
best farmers in all parts of the Commonwealth, in which 
they state it to be the prevailing practice to sow a bushel 
of redtop, a half bushel of Timothy, and from four to six 
pounds of red clover to the acre. Some of them vary the 
proportions a little, as by tne use of one peck of Timothy 
and a larger quantity of clover, but the general practice is to 
use nearly the quantities stated, some even using a consid- 
erable larger quantity. Now if we examine the table 
(given in the Report) we shall find that in an ounce of red- 
top seed there are 425,000 grains. In a pound there are 
6,800,000 seeds; in a bushel, or twelve pounds, there are 
81,600,000 seeds. Now take only one peck of Timothy 
seed to mix with it. In an ounce of Timothy grass seed 
there are 74,000 grains. In a pound there are 1,204,000 
grains. In eleven pounds, or a peck, there are 13,244,000 
seeds, and if we take but four pounds of clover, which is 
below the average quantity used, wo shall find by the same 
process that we have 1,024,000 seeds. If now we add 
these sums together, we shall find that we have put upon 
the acre no less than 95,868,000 seeds 1 This gives over 
15 seeds to the square inch, or about 2,000 seeds to the 
square foot ! 

Now it is a well known fact that the sward of a rich old 
pasture is closely packed, filled up, or interwoven with 
plants, and no vacant spaces occur. Yet, in a closely 
crowded turf of such a pasture, only one thousand distinctly 
rooted plants were found on a square foot, and these were 



CULTURE OP THE GRASSES. 5 

made up of twenty different species. Tlio soil should be 
supplied with a proper number of plants, else a loss of 
labor, time and space will be incurred ; but however heavily 
seeded a piece may be with one or two favorite grasses, 
small vacant spaces will occur, which, though they may not 
seem important in themselves, when taken in the aggregate, 
will be found to diminish very considerably the yield of an 
acre, even if they are so small as not to be perceived. And 
undoubtedly some allowance should be made for the seeds 
and young plants destroyed by insects, birds and various 
accidental causes; but even after all deductions for these, 
we see that in this State, at least, there is no deficiency in 
the quantities of seed used, and the imperfectly covered 
ground cannot be explained in this way. 

We sow seed enough, frequently, for fifteen plants to the 
inch, but rarely obtain above two or three, and very 
frequently even less than that. 

The difficulty of procuring the seed, and its expense, have 
been the strongest objections to the use of many species. 
A demand for these species, however, would soon remove 
this difficulty, and varieties would everywhere be kept for 
sale at a reasonable price. When it is considered that the 
additional expense of sowing a field or permanent pasture 
with a greater number of species will be, comparatively, 
very small, while the additional yield will be proportionably 
large, — if the result is as favorable as the opinion of many 
who have made the trial would lead us to expect, — every 
farmer must admit that it is for his interest to try the ex- 
periment, on a small scale, at least. 

It will be evident, after a moment's reflection, that very 
different mixtures, both as regards the species and the 
relative quantities of each, will be desirable for different 
soils; that dissimilar mixtures would be required for alter- 
nate cropping or laying down land for only a year or two, 
and for permanent pasture. In our practice it is most com- 
mon to seed down for some years, and not unfrequently 
this is done with the design of cutting the grass for hay for 
a few years and then pasturing the field, in which case our 



6 CULTURE OP THE GRASSES. 

seeding down assumes the character of laying down for 
permanent pasturage. Equally good, but very different 
mixtures might be made, also, for the same soils by different 
individuals, who had different objects in view, some desiring 
a very early crop, some wishing to select species which 
resist the access of profitless weeds, and others to cultivate 
those varieties which exhaust the soil the least. Each of 
these mixtures may be best adapted to the specific object 
of the farmer who makes it, and if composed of a sufficient 
number of species, may be good and truly ecomomical. 

The nutritive qualities of the grasses differ widely; and 
their value as feed for stock will depend, to a considerable 
extent, on the management of pastures and mowing-lands. 

Informing a mixture for pasture grasses, the peculiarities 
of each species should, therefore, be regarded: as the time 
of flowering, the habits of growth, the soil and location on 
which it grows best, and other characteristics. Among the 
grasses found on cultivated lands, in this country, the fol- 
lowing are considered as among the most valuable for ordi- 
nary farm cultivation ; some of them adapted to pastures, 
and others almost exclusively to mowing and the hay crop: 
Timothy {Phleiim pratense). Meadow Foxtail [Alopecurus 
pratcnsis). June, or Kentucky Blue Grass {Poa pra- 
tensis). Fowl Meadow [Poa serotina). Rough-stalked 
Meadow {Poa trivialis). Orchard Grass (Dactylis glom- 
erata). Perennial Rye Grass (Lolium perenrie). Redtop 
[Agrostis vulgaris). English Bent [Agrosiis alba). 
Meadow Fescue (Festuca pratensis). Sweet-scented 
Vernal [Aiithoxanthemuni odoratum). Hungarian Grass 
[Paniciun germanicum). Red Clover (Trifolium pra- 
tense). White or Dutch Clover {Trifolium repens,) and 
some others. 

Of those, the most valuable, all things considered, is the 
first, or Timothy. It forms a large proportion of what is 
commonly called English, or in some sections meadow hay, 
though it is said by some to have originated where it was 
first cultivated, in this country. It contains a large percentage 
of nutritive matter, in comparison with other agricultural 



CULTURE OF THE GRASSES. 7 

grasses. It thrives best on moist, peaty, or loamy soils, of 
medium tenacity, and is not well suited to very light, sandy 
lands. On very moist soils its root is almost always fibrous ; 
while on dry and loamy ones it is bulbous. On soils of the 
former description, which it especially aflects, its growth is 
rapid, and its yield of hay large, sometimes amounting to 
three and four tons to the acre, depending much, of course, 
on cultivation. But though very valuable for hay, it is not 
adapted to pastures, as it will neither endure severe grazing, 
nor is its aftermath to be compared with meadow foxtail, 
and some of the other grasses. 

June Grass (Fig. 1,) better known in some sections as 
Kentucky Blue grass, is very common in most sections of 
the country, especially on limestone lands, forming a large 
part of the turf, wherever it flourishes, and being univer- 
sally esteemed as a pasture grass. It starts early, but 
varies much in size and appearance, according to the soil ; 
growing in some places with the utmost luxuriance, and 
forming the predominant grass ; in others, yielding to the 
other species. If cut at the time of flowering, or a few 
days after, it makes a good and nutritive hay, though it is 
surpassed in nutritive qualities by several of the other 
grasses. It starts slowly after being cut, especially if not 
cut very early. But its herbage is fine and uniform, and 
admirably adapted to lawns, growing well in almost all soils, 
though it does not endure very severe droughts. It with- 
stands, however, the frosts of winter better than most other 
grasses. 

In Kentucky, a section where it attains its highest per- 
fection and luxuriance, ripening its seed about the 10th of 
June, and in latitudes south of that, it sometimes continues 
green through the mild winters. It requires three or four 
years to become well set, after sowing, and it does not 
attain its highest yield as a pasture grass till the sod is even 
older than that. It is not, therefore, suited to alternate 
husbandry, where land usually remains in grass but two or 
three years before being ploughed up. In Kentucky it is 
sown any time in winter when the snow is on the ground, 



CULTURE OP THE GRASSES. 




Fig. 1. June Grass. 



Fig. 2. Orchard Grass. 



tiiree or four quarts of seed being used to the acre. Ifi 
spring the seeds germinate, when the sprouts are exceedingly 
fine and delicate. Stock is not allowed on it the first year. 
The Meadow Foxtail is also an excellent pasture grass. 
It somewhat resembles Timothy, but is earlier, has a softer 
spike, and thrives on all soils except the dryest. Its growth 



CULTURE OP THE GRASSES. 9 

is rapid, and it is greatly relished by stock of all kinds. 
Its stalk and leaves are too few and light for a field crop, 
and it shrinks too much in curing to be valuable for hay. 
It flourishes best in a rich, moist, and rather strong soil, 
sending up a luxuriant aftermath when cut or grazed off, 
which is much more valuable, both in quantity and nutritive 
value, than the first crop. In all lands designed for perma- 
nent pasture, therefore, it should form a considerable part 
of a mixture. It will endure almost any amount of forcing, 
by liquid manures, or irrigation. It requires three or four 
years, after sowing, to gain a firm footing in the soil. The 
seed is covered with the soft and woolly husks of the 
flower, and is consequently light ; weighing but five pounds 
to the bushel, and containing seventy-six thousand seeds to 
the ounce. 

The Orchard Grass, or Rough Cocksfoot (Fig. 2) for 
pastures, stands pre-eminent. This is said to be a native 
of this countrj^, and was introduced into England, from Vir- 
ginia, in 1764, since which time its cultivation has extended 
into every country of Europe, where it is universally held 
in very high estimation. The fact of its being very pala- 
table to stock of all kinds, its rapidity of growth, and the 
luxuriance of its aftermath, with its power of enduring the 
cropping of cattle, have given it a very high reputation, 
especially as a pasture grass. It blossoms earlier than 
Timothy; when green is equally relished by milch cows; 
requires to be fed closer, to prevent its forming tufts and 
growing up l^o seed, when it becomes hard and wiry, and 
loses much of its nutritive quality. As it blossoms about 
the same time, it forms an admirable mixture with red 
clover, either for permanent pasture or mowing. It resists 
drought, and is less exhausting to the soil than either rye 
grass or Timothy. The seed weighs twelve pounds to the 
bushel, and when sown alone requires about two bushels 
to the acre. 

The Rough-stalked Meadow Grass (Fig. 3) is somewhat 
less common than June Grass, but is considered as equally 
valuable. It grows best on moist, sheltered meadows, 



10 



CULTURE OP THE GRASSES. 




Fig. 3. Eough-stalked Meadow Qraes. 



Fig. 4. Rye Grass. 



where it flowers in June and July. It is easily distinguished 
from June Grass, by having a rough sheath, while the latter 
has a small one, and having a fibrous root, while the root of 
June Grass is creeping. It possesses very considerable 
nutritive qualities, and comes to perfection at a desirable 
time ; is exceedingly relished by cattle, horses and sheep. 



CULTURE OP THE GRASSES. 11 

For suitable soils it should form a portion of a mixture of 
seeds, producing, in mixture with other grasses which serve 
to shelter it, a large yield of hay, far above the average of 
grass usually grown on a similar soil. It should be cut when 
the seed is formed. Seven pounds of seed to the acre will 
produce a good sward. The grass loses about seventy per 
cent, of its weight in drying. The nutritive qualities of its 
aftermath exceed very considerably those of the crop cut 
in the flower or in the seed. 

Fowl Meadow Grass is another indigenous species, of 
great value for low and marshy grounds, where it flourishes 
best; and, if cut and properly cured, makes a sweet and 
nutritious hay, which, from its fineness, is eaten by cattle 
without waste. According to Sinclair, who experimented, 
with the aid of Sir Humphrey Davy, to ascertain its com- 
parative nutritive properties, it is superior, in this respect, 
to cither meadow foxtail, orchard grass, or tall meadow oat 
grass ; but it is probable that he somewhat overrates it. If 
allowed to stand till nearly ripe, it falls down, but sends 
up innumerable flowering stems from the joints, so that it 
continues green and luxuriant till late in the season. It 
thrives best in mixture with other grasses, and deserves a 
prominent place in all mixtures for rich, moist pastures, and 
low mowing-lands. 

Rye Grass (Fig. 4) has a far higher reputation abroad 
than in this country, and probably with reason ; for it is 
better adapted to a wet and uncertain climate than to a dry 
and hot one. It varies exceedingly, depending much on 
soil and culture ; but, when cut in the blossom to make into 
hay, it possesses very considerable nutritive value. If 
allowed to get too ripe, it is hard and wiry, and not relished 
by cattle. The change from a juicy and nutritious plant to 
woody fibre, possessing but little soluble matter, is very 
rapid. Properly managed, however, it is a tolerably good 
grass, though not to be compared to Timothy, or orchard 
grass. 

Redtop (Fig. 5) is a grass familiar to every farmer in the 
country. It is the Herd's grass of Pennsylvania, while in 



CULTURE OP THE GRASSES. 




Fig. 5. Rcdtop. Fig. 6. English Bent. 

New York and New England it is known by a great variety 
of names, and assumes a great variety of forms, according 
to the soil ill which it grows. It is well adapted to almost 
every soil, though it seems to prefer a moist loam. It 
makes a profitable crop for spending, in the form of hay, 
though its yield is less than that of Timothy. It is well 
suited to our permanent pastures, where it should be fed 



CULTURE OP THE GRASSES. 



13 




1 



Fig. 7. Meadow Fescue. Fig. 8. Sweet-scented Vernal. 

close, Otherwise it becomes wiryaud innutritions, and cattle 
refuse it. It stands the climate of the country as well as 
any other grass, and so forms a valuable part of any mix- 
ture for pastures and permanent mowing-lands ; but it is 
probably rather overrated by u.s. 

Meadow Fescue (Fig. 7) is one of the most common of- 
the fescue grasses, and is said to be the Randall grass of 



14 CULTURE OP THE GRASSES. 

Virginia. It is an excellent pasture grass, forming a very 
considerable portion of the turf of old pastures and fields; 
and is more extensively propagated and diffused by the fact 
that it ripens its seeds before most other grasses arc cut, 
and sheds them to spring up and cover the ground. Its 
long and tender leaves are much relished by cattle. It is 
rarely sown in this country, notwithstanding its great and 
acknowledged value as a pasture grass. If sown at all, it 
should be in mixture with other grasses, as Orchard Grass, 
Rye Grass, or June Grass. It is of much greater value at 
the time of flowering than when the seed is ripe. 

The Sweet-scented Yernal Grass (Fig. 8) is one of the 
earliest in spring, and one of the latest in autumn ; and this 
habit of growth is one of its chief advantages, as it is 
neither a nutritious grass nor very palatable to stock of any 
kind, nor does it yield a very good crop. It is very com- 
mon all over New England and the Middle States, coming 
into old worn-out fields and moistp astures spontaneously, 
and along every roadside. It derives its name from its 
sweetness of smell when partially wilted, or crushed in the 
hand, and it is this chiefly that gives the delicious fragrance 
to all new-mown hay. It is almost the only grass that pos- 
sesses a strongly-marked aromatic odor, which is imparted 
to other grasses with which it is cured. Its seed weighs 
eight pounds to the bushel. In mixtures for permanent pas- 
tures it may be of some value. 

Common Millet is well known as another very valu- 
able crop for fodder in soiling, or to cure fur winter 
use, but especially to feed out during our usual periods of 
drought. Many varieties of millet are cultivated in this 
country, the ground being prepared and treated as for oats. 
If designed .to cut for green fodder, half a bushel of seed 
to the acre should be used ; if to ripen seed, twelve quarts, 
sown broad-cast, about the last of May or early in June. 
A moist loam or muck is the best adapted to millet; but I 
have seen very great crops grown on dry upland. It is 
very palatable and nutritious for milch cows, both green and 
when properly cured. The curing should be very much like 



CULTURE OF THE GRASSES. 16 

clover, care being taken not to over-dry it. For fodder, 
either green or cured, it is cut before ripening. In this 
State all cattle eat it as readily as green corn, and a less 
extent will feed them. Millet is worthy of a widely- 
extended cultivation, particularly on dairy farms. Indian 
millet is another cultivated variety. 

Red Clover is an artificial grass of the leguminous 
family, and one of the most valuable of cultivated plants for 
feeding dairy cows. It flourishes best on tenacious soils and 
stiff loams. Its growth is rapid, and a few months after 
sowing are sufficient to supply an abundant, sweet and nutri- 
tious food. In the climate of New England, clover should be 
sown in the spring of the year, while most of the natural 
grasses do far better sown in the fall. It is often sown 
with perfect success in the late snows of March or April, 
and soon finds its way down into the soil and takes a vigorous 
root. It is valuable not only as a forage plant, but as 
shading the ground, and thereby increasing its fertility. 

The introduction of clover among the cultivated plants 
of the farm has done more, perhaps, for modern agriculture 
than that of any other single plant. It has now come to be 
considered indispensable in all good dairy districts. 

White Clover, often called Honeysuckle, is also widely 
diffused over this country, to which it is undoubtedly indi- 
genous. As a mixture in all pasture grasses it holds a 
very high rank, as it is exceedingly sweet and nutritious, 
and relished by stock of all kinds. It grows most luxuri- 
antly in moist grounds and moist seasons, but easily accom- 
modates itself to a great variety of circumstances. 

With respect to the mixtures of grass-seeds most profit- 
able for the dairy farmer, no universal rule can be given, 
as they depend very much upon the nature of the soil and 
the locality. The most important point to be observed 
and one in which we, as a body, are perhaps most deficient, 
is to use a large number of species, with smaller quantities 
of each than those most commonly used. This is nature's 
rule ; for, in examining the turf of a rich old pasture, we 
shall find a large number of different species growing 



16 CULTURE OP THE GRAF^SES. 

together, while, if we examine the turf of a field sown with 
only one or two different species, we find a far less number 
of plants to the square foot, even after the sod is fairly set. 
No improvement in grass culture is more important, it seems 
to me. I have suggested, in another place, a large number 
of mixtures adaptedto the different varieties of soil and 
circumstances, together with the reasons f or the mixture 
in many instances. As an instance of what I should con- 
sider an improvement on our ordinary mixtures for pertna- 
ncnt pastiires, I would suggest the following as likely to 
give satisfactory results, dependent, of course, to a con- 
siderable extent, on t!ie nature and preparation of the soil : 

Meadow Foxtail, flowering ia May and June, 2 pounds 

Orchard Grass. " " " 6 " 

Sweet-scented Vernal, " April and May, 1 " 

Meadow Fescue, ' " May and June, 2 " 

Kedtop, '' June and July, 2 " 

June Grass, " May and June, 411 

Italian Rye Grass, " June, 4 " 

Perennial Rye Grass, " June, 6 " 

Timothy, " June and July, 3 " 

RougU-stalked Meadow Grasp, flowering ia June and July, 2 " 

Perennial Clover, lioweriug in June, 4 '' 

White Clover, flowering in May to September, 5-40 " 

For mowing-lands the mixture would, of course, be some- 
what changed. The Meadow Foxtail and Sweet-scented Ver- 
nal would be left out entirely, and some six or eight pounds 
added to the Timothy and Red Clover. The proper time to 
lay down lands to grass in the latitude of New England, is 
August or September, and no grain crop should be sown 
with the seed. 

[The mixtures of grass seed best adapted to particular 
circumstances, and the general and economical manage- 
ment of grass lands, are fully considered in the Fourth 
Annual Report of the Secretary of the State Board of 
Agriculture, to which reference is hereby made.] 



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